-^ 



SB 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OF PIANT INDDSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 164. 

B. T, GALLOWAY, Chief 0/ Bwean. 



PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH, 



I.-YAUTIAS, TAROS, AND DASHEENS, 



O. W. BARRETT, 

Plant Introducer, Office of Foreign Seed 
AND Plant Introduction. 

IL-AGRICULTURAL HISTORY AND UTILITY OF THE 
CULTIVATED AROIDS. 



o. F. COOK. 



I^srKi- February 5, 1910. 





WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1910. 



■l^iCSraV"'' 




Glass. 

Book --Jjx3 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate I. 




U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OT PLANT mDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 164. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. 



PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 



I.-YAUTIA8, TAROS, AND DASHEENS. 



0!^iv. BARRETT, 

Plaxt Introducer, Office of Foreign Seed 
AND Plant Introduction. 

II.-AGRICULTURAL HISTORY AND UTILITY OF THE 
CULTIVATED AROIDS. 



O. F. COOK. 



IssriCI) J-^EBIU-AKV ."), ]910. 




WASHINGTON-. 

government printing office, 
1910. 



^-3 



%■ 







^^ 



BUREAU or PLANT INDUSTRY. 



Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Gallo"WAY. 
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. 'Woods. 
Editor, J. E. Rockwell. 
Chief Clerk, James K.. Jones. 



Foreign Seed and Plant iNTRonrcTioN. 

SCIENTIFIC STAFF. 

David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. 
P. H. Dorsett, Albert Mann, George AV. Olivor, AV alter Van Fleet, and Peter Bisset, Experts. 
Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer. 
H. V. Harlan. II. C. Skeels, and R. A. Younjc, Assistants. 
Edward Gouchcr and P. J. Wester, Assistant Propagators. 

Crop Acclimatization and Adaptation In%-estigations. 

SCIENTIFIC staff. 

O. F. Cook, Bionomhi in Charge. 
G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanists. 
H. Pittier, Special Field Agent. 
S. M. Bain and D.N. Shoemaker, Experts. 

E. B. Boykin, J. H. Kinsler, Argyle McLachlan, and D. A. Saimders, Special Agents. 
E. C. EwinK and R. M. Meade, Assistants. 
164 
2 



FEB 11 1910 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Office of the Chief, 
Washington, D.C., Sej^tember 15, 1909. 

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled 
''Promising Root Crops for the South," consisting of two papers, 
'' Yautias, Taros, and Dasheens, " and ''The Agricultural History and 
Utihty of the Cultivated Aroids," and to recommend that it be 
published as Bulletin No. 164 of the Bureau series. These papers 
have been prepared by Mr. O. W. Barrett, formerly Plant Introducer, 
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, and Mr. 0. F. Cook, 
Bionomist, with a view to publication. 

Mr. Barrett, who recently resigned his position in this Bureau to 
take up the organization of a department of agriculture in the colony 
of Portuguese East Africa, both before and after his connection with 
the Department of Agriculture, spent much time in investigating the 
possibilities of a group of plants that has been almost completely 
neglected by plant cultivators unfamiliar with the Tropics — yautias, 
taros, and dasheens. These root crops have formed the staple food 
of such native races as the Hawaiians in the Pacific, and they have 
played important rdles in the agriculture of China, Japan, and the 
Malay Archipelago; in fact, taking the Tropics as a whole, they are 
among the most important of all root crops. 

Mr. Barrett has long believed that the yautias, dasheens, and other 
members of the group belonging to the family Aracese could be culti- 
vated with profit in the southern United States, and in order to find 
out what might be expected of the different varieties in this countrj^, 
he assembled a large collection from different parts of the world. His 
practical experience with similar collections in Porto Rico encouraged 
him to recommend these as new root crops for the South. 

This report was prepared rather hurriedly before Mr. Barrett's 
departure for East Africa. It contains the information which Mr. 
Barrett had collected regarding the different species and varieties, 
and its object is to enable persons unfamiliar with the plants to dis- 
tinguish the different sorts, some of which are likel}^ to be much more 
valuable than others. 

164 3 



4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

A general chapter on the agricultural history and utility of the 
cultivated aroids has been prepared by Mr. O. F. Cook, who has been 
acquainted with these plants in tropical countries. 

The collection of varieties of cultivated aroids assembled by Mr. 
Barrett is now being propagated at Gotha, Fla., in cooperation witk 
Mr. H.^Nehrling, and as soon as a sufficient stock of the different varie- 
ties is on hand small experiments with them will be started at differ- 
ent places in the South. 

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, 

TT T Tirr Chief of Bureau. 

Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

164 



C N T 1^: N T S 



Page. 

I. — Yautias, taros, and dasheens - 7 

Introduction : 7 

General description of yautias, taros, and dasheeny 7 

General culture. - - 11 

Fertilizers 12 

Harvesting 12 

Yield - 13 

Storage - 13 

Diseases - - -- 13 

Composition of tubers - 14 

Starch - - 14 

Flour, meal, etc 15 

Uses - 15 

Yautia A'arieties 17 

The Rolliza group - 17 

The Manola group 18 

The Amarilla group 19 

The Martinica group 20 

The Oto group - 21 

The Vino group 21 

The Senteh group , 22 

The Violacea group 23 

The Palma yautia - 23 

The Belembe yautia 24 

Alocasia varieties 24 

Alocasia macrorhiza 24 

Taro varieties 25 

Striped taros 26 

Red taros - 27 

Daaheen varieties - 27 

Summary 28 

II. — Agricultural history and utility of the cultivated aroids 31 

Index ".... 39 

164 5 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Plate I. A collection of yautias {Xanthosoma spp.) growing at Gotha, 

Fla Frontispiece. 

II. Leaf and rootstock of the alocasia and of the yautia 8 

III. Leaf and rootstock of the taro and of the dasheen 10 

IV. Base of a dasheen plant, showing tubers 12 

V. Tubers of a dasheen grown at Gough, S. C 14 

VI. Fig. 1. — Starch grains of the taro. Fig. 2. — Starch grains of the 
alocasia. Fig. 3. — Starch grains of the yautia. Fig. 4. — Starch 

grains of Canna edulis 16 

VII. One of the best table varieties of yautia, the Rolliza, showing 

numerous tubers attached to the rootstock 18 

VIII. Fig. 1. — Yautias and taros grown at Cat Island, S. C, showing 
young plants in an unfavorable situation. Fig. 2. — Yautias (S.P.I. 
No. 17463) from Honduras growing at Gotha, Fla., under favora- 
ble conditions 22 

IX. Fig. 1. — Yautias growing on a steep hillside near the road between 
Utuado and Arecibo, Porto Rico. Fig. 2. — Flower of the Palma 

yautia 24 

X. Taros under cultivation in wet ground near Honolulu, Hawaii 26 

164 
6 



B. P. I.— 512. 



PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

I-YAUTIAS, TAROS, AND DASHEENS. 

By O. W. Barrett, Plant Introducer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. 



INTRODUCTION. 

For many years the lack of a wet-land root crop has been felt 
throughout the South Atlantic and Gulf States. In view of the fact 
that some 40,000 acres in the Carolinas and Georgia have been fully 
abandoned, with at least half as much ground that is only planted 
once in two to four years on account of the decreased profits in rice 
culture in that section, an effort has been made to find profitable 
crops which may be grown in the rich soils of the coast-plain area of 
both of the regions mentioned, which are too wet for profitable 
potato culture. 

The recent increase of interest in starch roots, which may be utilized 
in the production of alcohol as well as for stock feeding, has lent a 
still greater importance to this question. 

With one or two exceptions the root crops discussed in the following 
pages are practically new to this country and come from the Tropics. 
However, theh crop season is sufficiently short to allow of their 
maturing in ordinary seasons before the advent of killing frosts; in 
fact, one or two of the varieties have been successfully grown with 
a fair yield as far north as central New York. 

These crops comprise salad plants, table tubers, stock-feed tubers, 
starch roots, and varieties adapted for the manufacture of meal, 
alcohol, etc. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF YAUTIAS, TAROS, AND DASHEENS. 

The economic aroids of the world have received very little attention 
outside of a few tropical countries, yet some of them bid fair to become 
of great commercial importance within a few years, for the foUowing 
reasons : They are adapted to soils which are too wet for other root 
crops, such as sweet potatoes and cassava; they grow rapidly if 
given a fairly rich soil and a fair amount of moisture; they yield 
10394— Bui. 164—10 2 7 



8 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

heavily, in some cases two to four times the average yiekl of potatoes 
(the RolHza yautia « has yielded when moderately fertilized, with 
ordinary cultivation, at the rate of 15 tons of edible tubers, besides 
5 tons of rootstocks suitable for stock feeding or starch manufacture) ; 
their keeping qualities are in most cases excellent, whether kept in 
the ground in situ or in a dry place in bags; and they are resistant 
to insect and fungous pests. 

The yautias (see PL I), or, as some varieties are called in the 
British West Indies, taniers, are perhaps more important from the 
commercial point of view than either the taros or the dasheens. 
These three types of plants occur throughout the world in from 100 
to 200 varieties. 

The yautias, or taniers, belong to the genus Xanthosoma, and by 
far the greater number of forms are included in the species X. sagitti- 
folium Schott. (See PI. 11, B.) The taros have long been known 
under the name Colocasia antiquorum esculentum; unfortunately, the 
yautias have been almost always, up to the beginning of the twentieth 
century, included under this name. The dasheens are tuberous- 
rooted taros, usually of dwarf habit (see PL III, B, and Pis. IV and 
V), and though it is uncertain to what species they belong there is 
no doubt whatever of their close kinship with the true taros. (See 
PL III, A.) The alocasias (see PL II, A) of the Orient and South 
America resemble the xanthosomas, but can usually be readily dis- 
tinguished by their leaf, as well as their root, characters. The genera 
Xanthosoma, Colocasia, and Alocasia constitute almost the only 
economic plants in the subfamily Colocasiese. 

The general aspect of the plants belonging to this group is that of 
the so-called caladium, or elephant-ear, which has become popular 
as an ornamental during the past two or three decades. They are 
succulent, stemless plants, although some varieties produce a rhizome, 
or main rootstock, 2, or even 4, feet in length, the greater portion of 
which may be above the surface of the ground. The leaves arise 
from the tip of this rootstock or from its offsets or tubers. The leaf 
stem ranges from 1 to 8 feet in height; it is usually grooved near the 
middle, forming a sinus which at its lowest extremity is wrapped 
about the tip of the rootstock. Most varieties seldom or never pro- 
duce flowers, and none of the cultivated forms have been observed 
by the author to produce seed under any circumstances. In fact, 
the yautias are considered the oldest cultivated crop in the world — 
and probably the only one, with the exception of the highly cultivated 
taros — which does not ripen seed under favorable conditions. 

The leaf blade of the yautia is always sagittate, or arrow-shaped, 
i. e., the sinus at the broad base is open" exposing the attachment of 

<i Pronounced yow-tee/-ah. 
164 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate II. 




'<^ 



GENEEAL DESCRIPTION OF YAUTIAS, TAEOS, AND DASHEENS. 9 

the petiole (see PL II; B). The shape of the blade is more or less 
triangular, with the retroceding basal lobes more or less rounded on 
the side toward the leafstalk. In the dasheens and taros, however, 
the blade is peltate, or shield-shaped, i. e., the petiole is attached to 
the under side of the blade, usually about half way between the 
center and the basal margin (see PI. Ill) ; the tip may be rounded or 
prolonged into a sharp angle. A more or less pronounced marginal 
vein runs just inside the entire edge of the leaf, connecting the tips 
of the side veins and opening by large pores on to the margin itself; 
frequently in sunshine immediately after rain there is a superfluity of 
water in the plant, and this is reduced by the discharge of drops 
through these pores — a phenomenon known as "weeping," which 
is rather common among the aroids. 

The entire plant of both the taro and the yautia is filled with lati- 
ciferous ducts containing a yellowish juice, which upon exposure 
rapidly thickens and turns brownish, forming a viscid gum. The 
true sap indelibly stains white cloth a reddish brown. 

The tuber, which is morphologically merely a specialized horizontal 
branch of the more or less nearly vertical rhizome, varies in shape 
from a very slender root-like body, thickened toward the apex, to a 
nearly spherical form, the average shape, perhaps, being obovoid. 
The attachment may be weak, as in the case of the best types, the 
tubers of which may be readily snapped off from the central root- 
stock by a quick shake with the hand, or they may be strongly 
attached close about the parent root. The tubers are usually covered 
with a fibrous bark, especially near the apex. The color of the exterior 
is almost always, whether of the genus Xanthosoma, Colocasia, or 
Alocasia, a deep brown; the inner skin, however, may be white, rose, 
green, or purple, which shows particularly about the tip. The 
interior of the tuber is usually white or creamy white, but in some 
types it is yellow, orange, rose, or even purple. This feature is 
especially of interest when three or four sorts of as many colors are 
served together on the table. 

Both the rhizome and the tuber bear more or less prominent buds, 
or "eyes," from which shoots may sprout under favorable conditions. 
The color, shape, number, etc., of these eyes upon the tuber vary 
constantly with the variety and are of considerable importance in 
distinguishing closely related forms. The rhizome is marked with 
distinct rings around its upper and thicker portion, which mark the 
axils of fallen leaf bases; just above these leaf scars are numerous 
small eyes, which seldom develop, whereas the lower portion of the 
rhizome bears another type of buds which may develop into tubers 
or, if exposed to light and air, into offsets and side shoots. The 
tuber also possess6s eyes, or suppressed buds, which vary greatly in 

164 



10 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

character, according to the variety of the phmt. They are usually 
naked and irregularly situated. 

The roots of the tuber are usually few compared with those of the 
rootstock. As in most aroids, the roots of the plants of these three 
genera are coarse, but rather long; they vary from white to red, are 
somewhat brittle, and contain comparatively little of the milky latex 
which fills most of the other organs of the plant. None of these 
plants are deep-rooted. 

The flowers appear in palmate clusters from the axil of the 
leaf. The peduncles, which are about one-third of the length of 
the petioles, are more or less adherent or connate toward the base. 
Seldom more than one flower in a cluster is open at a time. 
At the moment of flowering, the peduncle stands erect; immedi- 
ately upon the partial opening of the flowerets upon the spadix the 
peduncle withers and falls, though rarely the spathe and the spadix 
decay before the peduncle finally shrivels. As before stated, how- 
ever, the flower buds seldom open and are usually discovered in 
a semidecayed condition in the axil of the leaf. The flowers of related 
species of plants are snail-pollinated; no snails, however, have been 
noted by the writer in the flowers of any species of either of these 
three genera. The few species of wild or semicultivated sorts which 
occasionally attempt to produce seeds are probably insect-pollinated. 
The odor from the spathe is usually pronounced and varies from an 
unpleasant pungent aroma to a nauseous perfume. The spathe 
inclosing the spadix, which bears the minute flowers, is usually green 
at the base and creamy white or yellowish red in its limb or upper 
portion, which may be erect or bent at right angles to the spadix. 
The pistillate ' or basal portion of the spadix is thicker and much 
shorter than the staminate extremity; the spadix in these genera is 
always straight. In the taros the extreme tip of the spadix is sterile. 
In the case of some of the yautias, the spathe may barely exceed the 
tip of the spadix, whereas in some of the taros it may be prolonged 
to about twice the length of the spadix; it may be open, like that of 
a caladium, in some of the yautias, or it may be strongly twisted into 
a cornucopia-like roll, as in some of the taros. 

The name yautia is an Arawak word which was in common use in 
the Greater Antilles at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. The 
meaning is probably "place of (ya') the hutia (or spiny rat, Ca'promys 
sp.)," which was formerly very abundant in tropical America and 
which fed upon roots and fruits. The origin of the name tanier is 
unknown. The "r" is usually not pronounced in the British West 
Indies, and the spellings "tannia" and "tania" are frequently seen. 
Eddo is probably an African word synonymous w^th taro, but fre- 
quently applied to the tanier. Coco is another term applied to the 

164 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S, Dept, of Agriculture. 



Plate III 



M O 



3 I 




GENEKAL CULTURE. 



11 



yautia in the British West Indies. Malanga is the Arawak name for 
taro, and is still current in Cuba for both yautias and taros. In 
Panama the yautia is called by the Indian (San Bias?) name of oto, 
while in Mexico it passes under the names of quequeste, tekixcamote 
(probably a mongrel Indian and Spanish word), rejalgar, colomo, 
lampaza, and macal. 

Since the yautias have been only very recently mtroduced mto the 
Eastern Hemisphere, there are of course few native names ui that 
region. However, the local names for the taro varieties are exceed- 
ingly numerous and compHcated. Probably as many as 100 more 
or less distinct forms of the taro and of the closely related dasheen 
are now extant; many varieties have probably been lost on account 
of the radical changes in habits of the aborigines ui the Pacific islands 
during the past few decades. The locality ui which the cultivation 
of th^ taros began appears to be Polynesia, though this is not defi- 
nitely settled. A number of varieties have been cultivated for 
many centuries, if not for thousands of years, in China and Japan. 
There is not much doubt, however, that all of the yautias origmated 
in tropical America. The alocasias appear in South America, west- 
ern Polynesia, the East Indies, the Malay Penmsula, and India. 
There appears to be no local name which is sufficiently common or 
distinctive to permit of its use in this work. 

GENERAL CULTURE. 

The planting of yautias, taros, and dasheens should be begun as 
soon as danger from frost is over, for they require six months or 
more to mature. 

The plants may be set in rows for convenience of cultivation, 
though in the case of very wet lands, where horse tools can not be 
used and where the weeds are killed by allowing the water to stand 
at intervals, a close, haphazard method, as practiced in the Orient, is 
advisable. 

The distance between plants depends largely upon the variety 
planted. Most varieties of yautias and taros require from 1 to 2 
square yards of surface for their proper development; the dasheens, 
being of lesser growth, require only from one-half to three-fourths as 
much space. In rich alluvial soil, 5,000 to 10,000 plants may be set 
per acre. If planted in fairly dry soil, close planting in rows about 
3 feet apart is recommended; this will allow cultivating the young 
plants with a horse hoe or cultivator. 

Both the tops of the old rootstocks and the tubers themselves may 
be used as "seed." Even sections of the old rhizome of sufficient 
size for each chunk to bear two or more buds may be utilized. The 
''head," or top', of the rhizome, which is the preferred portion for 

164 



12 PEOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

planting, is prepared by cutting off the tip of the old stem, leaving 
h to lA inches of the leafless portion and about 4 inches of the basal 
portion of the roUed-up leafstalks. The dead bases of the petioles, 
if any, are peeled ofT from this head until fresh tissue showing the 
dormant buds is visible. In setting, the tip of the cylinder of petioles 
is left just above the surface of the soil; thus the portion of the root- 
stock is protected from overheating by the sun. Care should be 
taken, however, to allow no stagnant water to settle in the plant hole, 
as this would very likely cause rottmg of the rhizome before the roots 
could be formed. In fact, sour soil containing stagnant water is of 
course injurious to any of these plants, especially when young. After 
growth has started, however, plenty of water moving through the 
soil is undoubtedly advantageous. 

FERTILIZERS. 

Like all root crops giving heavy yields, yautias, taros, and dasheens 
require either a naturally rich or a well-manured soil. Potash seems 
to be the element demanded. At the Porto Rico Experiment Sta- 
tion unfavorable results were obtained by the author with chemical 
nitrates and phosphates, Ordinarj^ stable manure gave the best 
yield, TTell-rotted coffee pulp on ordinary soil gave a yield of 12,4 
tons per acre. Soil which can frequently be flooded will probably 
require no manure whatever. 

HARVESTING, 

The usual method of harvesting yautias, taros, and dasheens is by 
hand pulling, supplemented by the use of a pick or a mattock. The 
bundle of leafstalks of the mature plant is grasped in both hands, and 
if the soil is moist or sandy one strong pull usually brings up the 
entire root system; if some of the tubers break off from the rhizome 
and remain in the ground, they are readily brought out with a blow 
or two with a hoe. If the soil is packed, it may be necessary to 
loosen it, at least on one side of the hill, with a hoe before lifting the 
plant — after the manner of removing cassava roots. 

The treatment of the tubers and rliizomes after removing from the 
soil depends upon the use to which they are to be put. Of course, 
as much earth should be removed as possible before hauling from the 
field; tliis can be accomplished in dry weather by simply leaving the 
roots in loose, shallow piles upon the soil surface. 

In the West Indies ''castration" of the tubers is sometimes 
employed; this consists in digging about the rootstock and remov- 
ing mature tubers by means of a knife or even with the fingers. This 
process is of course not advised in this country, except where tubers 
are required for the table early in the season. Where the plants may 

164 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate IV. 




Base of a Dasheen Plant, Showing Tubers. 



DISEASES. 13 

be allowed to continue growth for eighteen to twenty-four months 
and where this method of castration is employed, it is undoubtedly 
possible to take as much as 30 tons of tubers from one acre in that 
time. 

YIELD. 

While single yautia plants may yield as high as 6 or more pounds 
of tubers to the hill, the average for common varieties in ordinary 
soil may be reckoned at 2 to 4 pounds per hill. The yield of the tare 
should be about the same as that of the yautia. The yield of the 
dasheen is 50 to 75 per cent of that of the yautia; however, in favor- 
able conditions the yield may amount to 4 or 5 pounds per hill, 
which should give 15 or more tons of roots to the acre. The yield 
for alocasia varieties has never been calculated, but will probably be 
found to be somewhat lower than that of the yautias. 

STORAGE. 

If kept dry after being harvested, the roots resist decay fairly well; 
small packages of tubers can easily be kept six months in a dry 
atmosphere without losing much of their vitality. If left in the 
ground in situ they also keep fairly well and have been carried 
through the winter season in South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, and 
Texas. The roots, whether tubers or rhizomes, should be stored in 
such manner as to guard against frost, decay from dampness, and 
damage from animal pests. 

DISEASES. 

All parts of the plants, with the exception of the parenchyma of 
the leaf, are filled with a thick juice which appears to protect the 
plants against the attacks of insects, fungi, and bacteria under ordi- 
nary conditions. However, there are two or three forms of decay in 
the tuber which are due partly to fungous and bacterial infection and 
partly to physiological causes; these decays seldom affect any except 
tubers and rootstocks which have lain dormant in the soil or which 
were slightly infected with the germs at the time of harvesting. 

During drought the margin of the leaf blade sometunes shows 
large, roundish patches of dead tissues. 

A white mycelial growth is frequently found on the surface of 
tubers and rhizomes. On the former the white threads seem to do 
no injury whatever, but about the top of the rootstock there are fre- 
quently to be found patches of agglomerated hypha? beneath which 
the cortical tissue is partially destroyed. The bases of the leaves are 
rarely attacked, but in a few cases have been noted as affected by a 
soft rot, probably caused by infection of this white mycehum. 
Heads or tubers showing any trace of the yellowish or whitish areas 

164 



14 



PEOMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 



caused by fungous mycelium or any patches of soft-rot should be 
discarded in planting. The brownish fibro-vascular bundles fre- 
quently seen in tubers and rootstocks of material which has been 
kept for some time after maturing are to be looked upon with sus- 
picion, though their presence is not necessarily a proof of the exist- 
ence of a fungous disease. 

COMPOSITION OF TUBERS. 

The following passage is quoted from Bulletin 6 of the Porto Rico 
Agricultural Experiment Station": 

Analyses of two samples of yautia have been made at the Maine Experiment Sta- 
tion, and the results given below are quoted from unpublished material. A white 
variety contained 85.9 per cent edible portion and 14.1 per cent refuse, i. e., parings. 
A yellow variety contained 76.9 per cent edible portion and 23.1 per cent refuse. In 
the preparation of ordinary Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes for the table, the edible 
portion constitutes on an average 80 per cent and the parings or refuse 20 per cent of 
the tuber. The following table shows the composition of the two varieties of yautia 
analyzed, calculated to a uniform basis of. 70 per cent of moisture, and includes for 
purposes of comparison the composition of Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes: 

Composition ofyautias and potatoes. 



Yautia and potato. 



White yautia. 
Yellow yautia 
Irish potato . . 
Sweet potato . 



Water. 



Per cent. 
70.0 
70.0 
78.3 
69.0 



Protein. 



Per cent. 
1.7 
2.5 
2.2 
1.8 



Fat. 



Per cent. 

0.2 

.2 

.1 

.7 



Total carbohy- 
drates. 



Sugar, 

starch, 

etc. 



Per cent. 
26.3 
26.1 
18.0 
26.1 



Crude 
fiber. 



Per cent. 

0.6 
.6 
.4 

1.3 



Per cent. 
1.2 
.6 
1.0 
1.1 



Fuel 
value per 
pound. 



Calories. 
529 
538 
385 
570 



The analyses show that yautias do not differ materially in composition from the 
potatoes. As is the case with potatoes, carbohydrates constitute the chief nutritive 
material. An examination of the yaptias shows that the principal carbohydrate 
present is starch. 

STARCH. 

Yautia varieties range from about 20 per cent to 30 per cent of 
starch. Taro varieties are ill adapted to starch m.anufacture for two 
reasons: The starch grain is only about one-fifth the size of that of 
the yautia (1 /i to 3 /x,^ see PL VI, figs. 1 and 4), which prevents the 
rapid settling of starch grains in water, and the rhizome of all taros 
examined thus far contains a gummy substance which renders the 
water in which the ground or grated root may be suspended of such a 

o Barrett, O. W. The Yautias, or Taniers, of Porto Kico. Bulletin 6, Porto Rico 
Agricultural Experiment Station, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905, p. 23. 
blfi = 1/1000 millimeter, or about 1/25000 inch. 
164 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate V. 




Tubers of a Dasheen Grown at Gough, S. G. 
(Seven-eighths natural size.) 



"USES. 15 

viscous nature that the starch grains are prevented from sinking to 
the bottom. Alocasia starch (see PL VI, fig. 2) has been but slightly- 
investigated thus far, but though the starch content of alocasia roots 
is somewhat less than that of yautias the gum contained is probably 
much less than in the case of the taro. 

The size of the starch grain varies considerably in different yautias, 
and is probably afi'ected to a greater or less degree by the soil condi- 
tions, seasons, etc., in which the starch was produced. The size of 
the starch grain in the dasheen and the taro does not seriously inter- 
fere with the use of these roots as alcohol producers or as a source 
for stock feed, flour^ etc. 

FLOUR, MEAL, ETC. 

Flour made by grinding dry slices of peeled yautia tubers is con- 
sidered in the West Indies more nutritious and fully as palatable as 
the famous cassava, or "banimy," cakes; it contains rather less 
fibrous matter and no trace of the rather dangerous hydrocyanic 
acid, which occurs even in the sweet cassavas under certain condi- 
tions. 

Taro flour has been on the market for several years, and is said to 
form a very easily digested food for invalids, infants, and persons in 
whom the digestive function is weak. It may be mentioned that 
the principal food of the Hawaiian race was poi, made from taro 
roots, and in their language there was no expression whatever for 
indigestion. Flour made from the red or yellow tuber variety of 
yautias should prove an attractive article in the northern markets. 
About 70 per cent of the peeled tuber is water; thus 10 pounds of 
tubers, net weight, yield after 3 hours' drying about 3 pounds of 
flour. This flour will keep indefinitely without becoming musty if 
protected from moisture. 

USES. 

Yautia tubers boiled form a large part of the diet of the laboring 
classes in tropical America; in fact, the yautia ranks third in impor- 
tance among the root crops in many countries of that region. The 
fried tubers enter into many dishes on the planters' tables. In some 
places, especially Jamaica, the larger tubers are baked and served 
like baked potatoes. The taro rootstocks may be eaten either boiled 
or baked, but are frequently served as purees and used in thickening 
soups and stews. None of the alocasias, with possibly a few excep- 
tions, are suitable for table use. 

In boiling, the thin skin should be previously removed. This 

skin may be left on in baking or roasting and may even be eaten 

along with the interior, as in the case of the true yams. When 

baked, the mealiness and peculiar flavor of the yautia are brought 

10394— Bui. 164—10 3 



16 PKOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

out much better than in any other method of cooking. The tubers 
of some yautia varieties are decidedly firm, even when thoroughly 
boiled; in fact, some of the varieties are best served mashed and 
made into small cakes, or croquettes, for otherwise — unless eaten at 
once while hot — the hard texture may be somewhat objectionable. 
The water in which the tubers are boiled should of course be well 
salted. 

An excellent method of serving yautia tubers is as follows: Mash 
the thoroughly boiled tubers, then add milk or eggs and grated 
cheese; this mixture should be made into small, thin croquettes and 
fried. Parboiling, cutting in thin slices, and frying is a native 
method in tropical America which brings out the characteristic flavor 
to good advantage. In fact, the yautia may be used in any way in 
which the common potato is used, and while there is very little dif- 
ference in flavor among the many varieties of potatoes there is con- 
siderable variation in flavor, as well as great difference in color, 
among the yautia varieties. 

The young leaves of both taros and yautias cooked as a salad are a 
valuable addition to our list of pot herbs. '^ As comxpared with other 
greens, these leaves contain probably more nourishment, as well as 
flavor, because of the creamy sap contained in these plants, especially 
the yautias. The boiled leaves may be served either with a milk or 
cream sauce, or fried like cabbage or made into croquettes with eggs, 
cheese, and milk. 

The Belembe yautia has a less rich but a more pronounced flavor, 
perhaps, than any other variety. The purple leaves of the Violacea 
type turn to a dull purplish color when boiled, resembling the purple- 
leaved cabbage. The petioles of some of the Japanese varieties are 
also cooked for greens, and in one case are said to be eaten raw. 
However, on account of the minute, needle-like crystals of calcium 
oxalate contained in the leaves, and to some extent in the outer por- 
tion of the tubers and rootstocks of both yautias and taros, cooking 
should always be carefully attended to. The alocasias contain a 
larger quantity of these crystals in the "blanket" portion of the roots 
than do either the taros or the yautias. 

Few stock-feeding experiments have been carried out with either 
yautia or taro roots. At the Porto Rico Experiment Station yautias 
were fed to pigs with favorable results, except that when used as 
an unmixed ration it was believed there was a tendency to produce 
scouring. 

«Mr. H. F. Schultz, horticulturist in charge of the Commission's vegetable gardens 
of the Canal Zone, has grown thousands of pounds of "yautia spinach" for the offi- 
cers' mess, and it has proved a great success as served on their tables, taking the 
place of spinach when the latter could not be supplied. Mr. Schultz states that he 
finds it difficult to supply the growing demand for this tender and spicy vegetable. 
164 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate VI. 




Fig. 1 .—Starch Grains of the Taro. 

(Magnified 200 diameters.) 



Fig. 2.— Starch Grains of the Alo- 

CASIA. 
(Magnified 200 diameters.) 



■'KJI^ 









3 3 -^ A* 






Fig. 3.— Starch Grains of the 

Yautia. 

(Magnified 200 diameters.) 



/ 


-^.-Vi. 


! 


AjJ''- 


/ 


nn u 


i 


y V ^' ^™^ 


\ 


^^ X ^^-' 






M 


-f?^ 


^'r 



Fi3. 4.— Starch Grains of the Ganna 

EDULIS. 
(Magnified 200 diameters.) 



YAUTIA VAEIETIES. 17 

No experiments have been made thus far regarding the commercial 
methods of obtaining alcohol from these roots. It is believed, how- 
ever, that many varieties will prove superior to potatoes in this 
respect, and the fact that yautias can be grown in the wet lands 
of the Southern States, where neither cassava, sweet potatoes, nor 
potatoes can be growm, renders the need for further investigation along 
this line decidedly urgent. 

YAUTIA VARIETIES. 

The known cultivated forms of this most interesting class of eco- 
nomic plants may be grouped under the following eight sections. 

THE ROLLIZA GROUP. 

The Kolliza variety (S. P. I. No. 14471) is in many ways the best form 
yet tested. There are many slight variations, or at least geographical 
forms, of this variety, which may be described as follows : 

Height 3 to 5 feet, with spreading petioles and triangular blades. The green 
petioles have a mauve line running along the more or less re volute sinus margin. 
The basal veins at the attachment of the petiole are always naked in mature leaves 
for one-half to 1 inch from the sinus. The tubers (PI. VII) are comparatively large 
and regular in shape, i. e., nearly cylindrical, with the apex slightly larger and fre- 
quently somewhat bent upward; the eyes and roots are comparatively few; the inte- 
rior is an even white throughout and the flavor when cooked is excellent. Flowers 
are almost never produced in this variety. Time for maturing, eight to eleven 
months, depending upon dryness of season and soil. Adapts itself more readily to 
various conditions than most other varieties. 

This is the most widely distributed type of yautia, and is known to 
occur in Venezuela, Trinidad, Dominica, Porto Rico, Isle of Pines, 
Cuba, Santo Domingo, Mexico, British Honduras, and Surinam. 
Closely related varieties have been received from Ceylon (probably 
introduced from South America), British Guiana, and Colombia. 
The many forms of this variety differ in the amount of color in evi- 
dence upon the outer portion of the petiole, in the width and shade 
of the sinus margin stripe, in the vigor of the plant, etc. It is prob- 
able that extensive field tests of these forms would show that several, 
at least, have tubers with characters which make them readily 
interdistinguishable. 

A Jamaica variety (S. P. I. No. 15397) very similar in appearance 
as to leaf and leafstalk, and even the root system, produces tubers 
having a tendency to come to the surface of the soil and with a dis- 
tinct taro-like flavor when cooked; according to Mr. Nehrling they 
are sometimes found standing erect above the soil surface about the 
mother plant. 

A variety which has been in the trade as Alocasia marshaUi (S. P. I. 
No. 15401) is of unknown habitat, and though the tubers are scarcely 
distinguishable from those of the Rolliza the entire petiole is covered 

164 



18 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

with a glaucous, bluish bloom and stands more erect than in the type 
variety. 

A variety from Jamaica (S. P. I. No. 15415) has a leafstalk reddish 
toward the base and with a wider maroon stripe on the sinus wing, 
while the midrib and the basal veins of the blade are reddish beneath. 

Two other Jamaica varieties (S. P. I. Nos. 15406 and 15418) 
closely resemble the parent type, but the tubers of the former are 
smaller and more numerous, while the petiole of the latter is of a 
brighter green and has a more strongly colored sinus stripe. 

A variety known in Porto Rico as the " Blanca" (S. P. I, No. 15419) 
has erect petioles and more slender rhizomes, which curiously enough 
contain numerous raphidian crystals which bar the rootstocks of this 
variety from the table, although the tubers are apparently free from 
this defect; this variety is supposed to endure more stagnant water 
in the soil than its sister sort, the Rolliza. 

A variety from Honduras, via Florida (S. P. I. No. 17462), may 
belong to another type because of its yellowish tubers and the extra 
amount of color on the sinus wing and the base of the petiole. 

A variety received from Singapore (S. P. I. No, 18384) also has a 
creamy white tuber and a leaf blade somewhat more shining than in 
the Rolliza. The origin of this variety is undoubtedly tropical 
America; this was received as Alocasia indica. A variety (S. P. I. 
No. 19271) cultivated in Texas as an ornamental proves to be quite 
distinct from Rolliza on account of the exceedingly slender tubers. 

A variety which has been in the trade as Alocasia javanica (S. P. I. 
No. 19291) may perhaps belong to a distinct type; the tubers are 
numerous, clustered, of irregular shape, and white inside with greenish 
inner rind; there are also slight peculiarities in petiole and blade. 

A variety (S. P. I. No. 204S4) from Santo Domingo also has 
creamy white tubers. A variety in northeastern Mexico, the Lam- 
paza (S. P. I. No. 17149), is entirely green with the exception of a 
narrow line on the sinus margin; another variety there, the Rejalgar 
(S. P. I. No. 20970), has a petiole reddish at the base and bluish in 
the middle, while the blade has a violet margin, and in the young leaf 
the veins are shaded red beneath; the natives do not cultivate this 
latter variety, but gather the young leaves and petioles for greens and 
to mix with their stews, while the tubers are also mashed and made 
into a gruel, according to Dr. Edward Palmer. 

THE MAN OLA GROUP. 

The plants in the Manola section are characterized by the flatness 
of their leaf blades— in this resembling niany of the alocasias, but 
the naked basal veins at the sinus make them xanthosomas. The 
varieties belonging to this type are usually of more dwarf size than 

164 



3ul. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate VII 




One of the Best Table Varieties of Yautia, the Rolliza, Showing Numerous 
Tubers Attached to the Rootstock. 



YAtTTiA VARIETIES. 19 

those of the EoUiza section, and the tubers are variable. The plants 
are adapted to much drier soils and they withstand long periods of 
drought much better. This type appears confined to the island of 
Porto Rico. 

The Manola yautia of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15405) may readily 
be distinguished by its very flat, broadly triangular leaf blade and its 
comparatively short petioles, which are scarcely colored at all on the 
margin of the sinus wing. The color of the tubers varies inside 
according to their size and maturity from pale yellow to orange; the 
exterior is rough, with numerous small eyes. 

The Gengibrilla yautia of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15388) has a 
much more slender petiole, with less bluish glaucous coloring on the 
surface, but with considerable reddish maroon shading on the inside 
of the sinus wings. On account of the very slender tubers it is 
doubtful whether this variety can correctly be placed in this group, 
notwithstanding the flatness of the leaf blade. 

A very rare variety discovered in the west end of Porto Rico and 
known there as the " Islena " (S. P. I. No. 15390) may be distinguished 
from the Manola by the large irregular blotches of reddish purple and 
maroon on the outside of the sinus wing. The tubers are normal in 
shape, but pinkish inside and of high quality. 

THE AMARILLA GEOUP. 

Varieties in the Amarilla group are the most dwarf of all yautias, 
and though closely resembling the RoUiza varieties as to blade and 
petiole the very short and rough tubers which are of a yellowish or 
orange color inside distinguish them from those in the RoUiza sec- 
tion, while the concave or irregularly curved blade separates them 
from yautias of the Manola type. Varieties of the Amarilla type are 
known to occur in Cuba, Santo Domingo, Porto Rico, and Dominica, 
and they probably occur in some of the South American countries. 

The Amarilla of Porto Rico and Cuba (S. P. I. No. 15387) has short 
petioles covered with a glaucous gray bloom, but without any purplish 
shading on the sinus margin. The tubers are short, small, very firm, 
yellow inside, and of very rich flavor; their keeping quahties are 
excellent when not affected with fungous diseases previous to harvest- 
ing. During the dry season the tubers may be left in the ground for 
weeks, or even months, and removed from time to time as required. 
While the yield is not so high as in some other types, the richness of 
the flavor and the good keeping quahties render it a popular variety. 

A larger variety of the Amarilla type, the ''Dominica," or "Sama- 
nal," of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15408), is distinguished by having a 
few blotches or fetripes of a maroon color along the sinus margin, by 
its much more slender habit, and by the paler color of the leaf blade. 

164 



^0 PEOMiSmG ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

The tuber in some respects is the finest flavored and richest of all the 
varieties of yaiitias tested thus far. It should be generally culti- 
vated, since it proves fairly productive and resistant to fungous 
attacks. 

THE MARTINICA GROUP. 

Most varieties of the Martinica section are strong growing, hand- 
somely colored, and fairly productive. The petiole is usually striped, 
especially near the sinus. The leaf blade is usually dark in color; 
the tubers are of fair size, but short, rough, and beset with numerous" 
small eyes; the interior is yellow or orange. The type of this section, 
the Martinica (S. P. I. No. 15385, probably introduced from Mar- 
tinique), is sometimes known as the "Huevo," on account of the egg- 
shaped tubers ; as the "Quintal," from its supposed maximum yield of 
100 pounds per clump; and as the "Amarilla," from the bright-yellow 
color of the tubers. This plant, which has been known in the trade 
as Xanthosoma maculatum, is one of the most striking varieties when 
well grown; the petiole sometimes attains a height of 4 or 5 feet and 
is beautifully shaded with cream and rose on a green background, 
while along the sinus wings are irregular blotches of maroon and reddish 
brown. It is fairly productive, but there is a tendency to over- 
stooling, and for this reason it should be harvested as soon as the 
tubers are mature ; if left in the ground like the Amarilla these tubers 
usually send up new shoots even during the driest weather. The 
tubers are perhaps more nearly cylindrical than in any other variety ; 
however, they bear many roots and are firmly attached to the central 
rootstock. The color is deep yellow inside, and when cooked this 
turns to a deep olive or grayish yellow shade. The tubers are so rich 
that only a few ounces suffice for the carbohydrate portion of a meal. 
Like the tubers of the Amarilla, their firmness is a rather objectionable 
characteristic. Not only does this variety flower more frequently 
than any other, but teratological monstrosities have been noted in 
several instances, as, for example, double spathes, coherent peduncles, 
and distally flattened spadices. Unfortunately this otherwise highly 
desirable variety appears susceptible to fungous diseases and does 
not endure drought well. 

The Orqueta (S. P. I. No. 15379) is an exceedingly rare variety 
which is confined to a small district of Porto Rico. The leafstalks 
are the palest of all the yautias, in some cases when grown in the 
shade being nearly white; there are always, however, a few faint 
streaks of maroon along the sinus margin. The leaf blade is also of 
a pale yellowish green color. The tuber is yellow or orange inside. 
This variety is inferior in point of hardiness and productiveness, but 
is of some use as an ornamental, and in moist, rich soils will yield a 
fair crop. 

164 



YAUTIA VARIETIES. 21 



THE OTO GROUP. 

Varieties of the Oto section have a general resemblance above 
ground, but the tubers are exceedingly variable in color. The 
petioles are always strongly colored, either reddish, bluish purple, 
or glaucous maroon; the whitish bloom common to most yautias is 
more in evidence in this than in the other sections already mentioned. 
The plants are usually of medium to large size, and though results of 
field experiments are lacldng, there is no doubt that some of the 
varieties will prove of high value. 

The so-called "Jamaica tanier" of Trinidad (S. P. I. No. 15383) 
has reddish brown petioles with a glaucous sinus wing, which becomes 
deep reddish purple along the margin, which is usually rolled inward. 
The midrib and basal veins are mauve-purple beneath, especially in 
young leaves. The rhizome is orange-yellow inside and the tubers 
are of a decided yellow shade. 

A variety received from the Jamaica Department of Agriculture 
(S. P. I. No. 15403) resembles the one just mentioned as to blade and 
petiole characters, except that there is more of a reddish or scarlet 
tinge at the base of the leafstalks and along the sinus margin. How- 
ever, the tubers are of a pronounced rose color and comparatively 
short, while the rhizome is of a pale-rose tinge throughout. 

A variety received from Guatemala (S. P. I. No. 15804) is probably 
identical with the Jamaica of Trinidad, but appears to be more 
vigorous and prolific. A similar variety (S. P. I. No. 16947) from 
Kamerun, West Africa, differs from the two previous sorts in having 
white tubers. This variety was probably introduced from tropical 
America. 

The Oto of Panama (S. P. I. No. 19715) has a reddish, very erect 
petiole with strongly reflexed sinus wings, marked with numerous 
purple lines; the blade is short, but the basal veins are less exposed 
than in most varieties. The tubers are of a beautiful rose shade. 

A variety from Santo Domingo (S. P. I. No. 20488), similar to 
the preceding, has a pronounced bluish glaucous bloom on the leaf- 
stalks, and the pale flesh of the rhizome is marked with dark-purple 
lines along the fibro-vascular bundles. 

THE VINO GROUP. 

The varieties of the Vino section of yautias are usually dwarf or 
medium in size, with more or less coloring of the leafstalks and with 
pinkish or purplish tubers. The tendency to "sucker" is an objec- 
tionable feature. These yautias should be grown upon rich, moist 
soils and planted comparatively close. The flavor of the tubers, 
together with their unusual color, which is even more pronounced 
after cooking, renders them of high value for the table. 

164 



22 PEOMISING EOOT CEOPS FOE THE SOUTH. 

The Vino, or Punzera (S. P. I. No. 15377), of Porto Rico is appar- 
ently confined to the West Indies and is nowhere common. The leaf 
blade is of a dark-green shade with light-colored veins, and the 
petiole is stained purple along the inside. The tuber is distinctly 
flaky or "mealy" when baked, or even when boiled, and has a 
delicate nutlike flavor distinct from that of most other yautias. No 
record of the flowering of this variety has been obtained. 

The Islena of the south side of Porto Rico (S. P. I. No. 15410) is 
the largest variety of this section and sometimes attains a height of 
6 feet. This variety in blade, petiole, and tuber is very similar to 
the Vino. 

Similar varieties have been received from Grenada and Santo 
Domingo; one from Haiti (S. P. I. No. 17703) has a dark- violet 
margin around the blade and the young leaf is stained maroon, 
except along the veins, while the sinus margin is irregularly marked. 
The rose-tuber form (S. P. I. No. 19778), called the " Tekixcamote," 
of Chiapas, Mexico ; the red-tuber form (S. P. I. No. 20864), called the 
"Macal," of Tabasco, Mexico; and a variety having strongly colored 
petioles (S. P. I. No. 17463; see PI. VIII, fig. 2), from Honduras, 
belong in this section, but have not been sufficiently studied. 

THE SENTEH GROUP. 

The three varieties of the Senteh type have been received only 
from Java; theoretically, all of the East India xanthosomas were 
introduced from tropical America, but it is believed that the Ameri- 
can prototypes have in this case become extinct in the Western 
Hemisphere. 

The Senteh (S. P. I. No. 17236), which was received as Alocasia 
macrorliiza, may readily be distinguished from al'l but one of the 
other yautias by the strongly contrasted dark-maroon or bronze- 
purple blotches along the sinus wing and on the sides, and even the 
back, of the petiole, especially toward the base. Although the 
young petiole is sometimes nearly white, in a few cases it has been 
noted of a blackish purple color. The leaf blade resembles that of 
the Rolliza, but is somewhat shorter. The tuber also resembles that 
of the Rolliza type. 

The "talus soerat " (S. P. I. No. 17239), which was received from 
the Botanic Gardens at Buitenzorg as Colocasia monorliiza scripta, 
closely resembles the Senteh; however, the striping of the petiole is 
much less in evidence and the tuber is of a yellowish white color 
inside and, besides, has a tendency to rise above the soil surface. 
Both this and the previous variety should be cultivated as orna- 
mentals either in beds or indoors in pots. The yield and quality of 
the tubers have not been determined. 

164 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate VIII. 




Fig. 1.— Yautias and Taros Growing at Cat Island, S. C, Showing Young Plants 
IN AN Unfavorable Situation. 




Fig. 2.— Yautias (S. P. I. No. 17463) from Honduras Growing at Gotha, Fla., 
Under Favorable Conditions. 



YAXTTIA VARIETIES. 23 

S. P. I. No. 20948 resembles the typical Senteh, but has more 
purplish shading on the lower portion of the petiole. This is one of 
the most striking varieties of yautia for ornamental purposes. 

THE VIOLACEA GROUP. 

The two varieties of the Violacea type are very distinct from all 
other yautias. The entire petiole, with the exception of the extreme 
distal portion, is of a dark blackish purple, suffused with a glaucous 
bloom; the leaf blade is normal as to shape, but the color is very 
dark, while the midrib and larger veins, especially in young leaves, 
are of a pronounced purpHsh tinge. 

The Guayamera (S. P. I. No. 15394) has been in the trade as 
Xanthosoma violacea. This form was received from the Buitenzorg 
(Java) Botanic Gardens as Colocasia antiquorum niger, and from the 
Singapore Botanic Gardens as Alocasia vioUceum. The leaf blade is 
bent at an acute angle, or at most at a right angle, with the petiole, 
which stands erect and attains a height of 5 feet. The tubers are 
rather slender, of medium size, and of a pronounced pinkish or rose 
color inside. Flowers are almost never seen. Although a very pop- 
ular variety in Porto Kico, the author never found tubers for sale in 
the market. 

The Prieta, or Morada (S. P. I. No. 15404), is an exceedingly rare 
variety apparently confined to Porto Rico. It is distinguished from 
the preceding variety by its leaf blades being at a normal angle 
instead of nearly vertical, and by its orange instead of rose tubers. 
This variety, which is of first quality for table use, should be planted 
in rich, moist soil. It appears to be subject to root troubles if exposed 
to prolonged drought. 

THE PALM A YATJTIA. 

It is probable that the Palma yautia (S. P. I. No. 15414) will 
prove to be botanically distinct from the Xanthosoma sagittifolium 
varieties. The leaf blade, which sometimes measures 4 feet long by 3 
feet wide, is strongly concave, Kke that of most true yautias, but the 
basal veins of the laminar sinus are much less exposed. The rhizome 
is caulescent, sometimes rising to a height of 3 or 4 feet above the soil 
surface. The very small tubers are produced only under very favor- 
able circumstances. However, the large rhizome, which may in one 
season attain a diameter of 4 or even 6 inches, is used as poultry and 
pig feed by the natives; for tliis purpose it should be cut in chunks 
and boiled. The yellowish or orange interior of the rootstock con- 
tains about the same percentage of starch as the RoUiza variety, 
although the fibro-vascular bundles are more in evidence. Ten 
pounds is af air weight for a 1-year-old rhizome. This variety fre- 

164 



24 PEOMISING BOOT CEOPS POE THE SOUTH. 

quently flowers, and the spathe (see PL IX, fig. 2) is 12 to 18 inches 
long, rather slender, glaucous maroon below, shading to a pinkish 
yellow above. The odor is rather unpleasant and pungent. The 
petiole is shaded from purphsh maroon along the sinus to dull-green 
distad. 

THE BELEMBE YAUTIA. 

The Belembe {Xanthosoma Imstifolium) , a dwarf species of yautia 
(S. P. I. No. 15412), is cultivated in Porto Rico and Panama for its 
leaves, which have an aromatic flavor when boiled. It seldom 
attains more than 2 feet in height and prefers half shade in moist soil. 
The petiole is erect, dark green, with a long blade having large, 
shghtly twisted basal lobes. Tlie corni may become multiple-headed 
from the sprouting of numerous offsets, but no true tubers are ever 
produced. Only the leaves are utilized. Flowers are sometimes 
seen. 

ALOCASIA VARIETIES. 

The Alocasia group contains Httle-known plants whose taxonomic 
relationships have not yet been worked out. In fact, since they very 
seldom flower, it is almost impossible to accurately determine their 
specific names. On account of the insoluble crystals of calcium 
oxalate (raphides) contained in the cortical portion, or "blanket," of 
the rhizome, it is not safe to use any of the alocasias as table roots or 
for poultry or stock feeding, although for the latter purpose they can 
probably be utihzed when thoroughly boiled. These plants are of 
especial utihty where a quick-growing root containing a medium 
quantity of starch is required. In the Tropics, where growth is 
practically continuous in the moist soils along rivers and mountain 
streams, 10 to 25 pounds may be calculated as the normal weight for 
a rootstock of from 1 to 2 years of age. Many of the South Ameri- 
can forms which may prove to belong to a closely related genus have 
the objectionable habit of overstooling. 

Among the collection received from Surinam a few forms hke the 
Abo (S. P. I. No. 19222) and the Koso (S. P. I. No. 19221), have con- 
siderable color on the petiole, which frequently shades into a purphsh 
zone about the tip of the rhizome. The leaf blade somewhat resem- 
bles that of the Palma yautia, but is more flat, with less prominent 
veins and a more nearly closed laminar sinus (see PI. II, A). The 
color of the interior of the rhizome varies from white to orange. 

ALOCASIA MACRORHIZA. 

The Alocasia macrorhiza is seldom cultivated in Porto Rico, where 
it bears the common name of Panama, but is frequently used for feed- 
ing pigs. The plant is an even, dark, shining green throughout 

164 ' 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate IX. 





TARO VARIETIES. 



25 



thouo-h the inside of the rootstock is white. The laminar smus is 
practlcallv open, though the basal veins are always covered. Even 
9-foot plants have thus far resisted all attempts to shock them into 
flowering. It is beheved that this variety will succeed better as a 
starch root than even Alocasia indica or A. odora, though prolonged 
field tests are necessary to determine this point. 

TARO VARIETIES. 

Though among the oldest cultivated plants in the world, the fifty 
to one hundred varieties of taro now in cultivation have received 
very httle scientific attention, and are consequently in a deplorable 
state of taxonomic confusion. Undoubtedly the larger number of 
these forms ^^nll be found to conform to the limitations of the species 
Colocasia antiquorum and to its principal variety, 0. antiquorum escu- 
lentum. For convenience in cultural discussions we may divide the 
genus into two groups, viz, the true taros and the dasheens. The 
petioles and blades of both groups are very similar (see PL III) . How- 
ever, the tuberous offsets of the dasheens are seldom found among the 
true'taros, although tliickened, stolon-like, and more or less superfi- 
cial offsets are common under certain circumstances in some of the 
taro types. The leaf is always peltate, though the angle which the 
blade forms with the petiole is variable; the comparative width of 
the blade and its irregular marbhngs and mottled areas are also 
inconstant. Among the dasheens a bronze -purphsh shading of 
petiole is a permanent feature, which, taken with its dwarf size and 
the tubers, renders the two groups readily separable. Among the 
taros color and markings run rampant; indeed, even the sap of two 
or three varieties is colored, or at least colors instantly upon exposure 

to the air. 

In Hawaii, where forty-five distinct varieties are recognized, the taros 
are roughly divided into upland and lowland sorts. Varieties of the 
latter type are usually flooded at frequent intervals during the grow- 
ing season (see PI. X), partly to keep down weeds and partly because 
the plants require a great quantity of water. Although most taros 
contain from 15 to 25 per cent of starch, the size of the starch grain 
itself (see PI. VI, fig. 1) is so smafl (1 /i to 3 fi) and the gum content of 
the root is so high that it is doubtful whether any commercial method 
for extracting the starch from either the taro or the dasheen can 
readily be found. However, for grinding into flour or meal or for 
alcohohc distiflation roots of both types of this section are eminently 
adapted. Two or three companies have already placed upon the 
market a flour made by grinding the cooked roots of some of the 
Hawaiian taros. 

Perhaps the commonest, or at least the most widely distributed, 
of aU the taros is the common West Indian ''eddo," or, as it is known 

164 ■ 



26 PEOMISING ROOT CROPS FOE THE SOtJTH. 

in Porto Rico and Cuba, the ''malanga." This variety attains a 
height of 3 to 5 feet, has comparatively few suckers, and produces 
in six to ten months a more or less cylindrical or fusiform rhizome 
from 6 to 12 inches long by 3 to 4 inches in diameter. The leafstalks 
are pale green, becoming almost white toward the base, although at 
the point of attachment with the rhizome there is frequently a dis- 
tinct shade of rose. The leaf blade is bent at a considerable angle 
with the petiole, so that in the mature leaf it hangs nearly vertical. 
The rootstock is more or less covered with a fibrous bark similar to 
that of the yautia root; it has practically no blanket of poisonous 
tissue about the starchy interior. Not only is there a slight trace of 
tannin in the mucilaginous juice of the root — which of course be- 
comes black when touched with iron or steel — but it appears to have 
some ferment which upon cooking changes the juices of the root to 
a purplish black shade. Hence the boiled taro root has not the 
inviting white appearance of the yautia tuber upon the table. The 
fibro-vascular bundles of the rhizome are small as compared with 
those of the yautia rootstock. The fungous diseases which attack 
the yautia are also in evidence among the taro and dasheen varie- 
ties, although the latter root appears to be much more resistant than 
the former. 

It appears that there are several forms of this typical West Indian 
taro, which vary in point of color of the petiole base and of the top 
of the rhizome. The strongest variation from this type, which 
should perhaps stand in a class by itself, is the highly colored Royal 
or Lehua taro (S. P. I. No. 19952) of Hawaii. This variety, which 
was formerly cultivated solely for the royal families, contains a 
blood-like sap and produces purplish or rose-colored roots; even the 
veins in the leaf blade are more or less tinged with reddish purple. 
This is an upland variety requiring comparatively little water, which 
should be generally cultivated as a first-class table tuber for the 
fancy-vegetable market. 

STRIPED TAROS. 

The marblings or stripings of the petiole and the more or less pro- 
nounced marbling of the leaf blade in this section of true taros serve 
to readily distinguish the forms superficially. The shape of the 
blade varies from the exceedingly narrow and flat form found in a 
variety from Sibpur, India (S. P. I. No. 17102), to the strikingly 
striped varieties from Java, like the ''talus belang" (S. P. I. No. 
20954), which has pale-green petioles entirely covered with more or 
less irregular bands of bronze-green, while the blade itself is strongly 
marbled in light and dark green patches. The "talus koekoek" 
(S. P. I. No. 20953), also of Java, has petioles nearly white, with a 
slight brownish narrow striping, especially on the young leaf, while 

164 



Bui. 164, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agncultur 



PLATE X, 




DASHEEN VAKIETIES. 27 

the sinus wings are involute and the blade a bluish green shade with 
a weak, slightly crumpled margin. The ''kempol koenig" (S. P. I. 
No. 20945), of Java, has the palish petiole covered over with minute, 
cross-hatched, darker green lines. 

The petiolar spot on the upper surface of the blade varies from a 
yellowish green to a pronounced purplish shade, which may be en 
masse or in the form of radiating lines. The color of the roots varies 
from ivory-white to orange-yellow. In some varieties there is a 
tendency to produce many offsets. 

RED TAROS. 

Only ten or twelve distinct sorts of red taros are included in the 
collection made by the writer, though it is probable that this num- 
ber could be easily doubled, or perhaps trebled. However, the red or 
black taros are comparatively rare and until last year were prac- 
tically luiknown in the Western Hemisphere. The colors of the peti- 
ole vary from a pale reddish or maroon tinge to an almost black 
color. Of the latter type, the " kalukandala " (S. P. I. No. 17461) of 
Ceylon may be taken as a type. This strong-growing and highly 
ornamental variety holds its nearly erect black petioles 4 to 6 feet 
high. The rhizome is yellowish inside, while its apex and the bases 
of the petiole are purplish. 

Another type, the " garendakandala " (S. P. I. No. 17459), also from 
Ceylon, has obscure greenish lines upon a reddish brown background, 
except toward the upper part of the petiole; the blade narrow, 
glaucous blue; the top of the rhizome and extreme base of the petiole 
white instead of pink. 

Another distinct type is the "kiempol poetich" (S. P. I. No. 20947) 
of Java. In this the petiole is bronze-red in the middle, pale green at 
the base and apex, with a paler, involute sinus margin. The blade 
is pecuhar in having purple flecks near the petiolar spot and occa- 
sional pale-green blotches near the middle, while the veins are dark 
glaucous green. 

DASHEEN VARIETIES. 

For reasons previously explained, it is not always easy to distin- 
guish between the dasheens and the taros, for some of the dasheens 
have a tendency to throw sprouts from the tips of the tubers, while 
some of the taros produce tuber-like offsets at the surface of the 
ground. Many forms of the dasheen have been cultivated in China 
and Japan for centuries, if not for thousands of years. One variety, 
the Hatake-imo (S. P. I. No. 21649) of Japan, has the corm-like 
offsets combined into a multiple-headed clump; but, stranger still, 
each tip throws out not one but an indefinite number of buds. It is 
possible that the process of close cutting the petiole has finally 
brought about an abnormal habit in this form. The leaf and petioles 

164 



28 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

of this variety in particular, and of many of the so-called "imos" of 
Japan in general, are gathered as greens and boiled like spinach, and 
they are also dried and preserved with salt." 

A distinct type of dasheen which was sent under the name Leuco- 
casia gigantea (S. P. I. No. 21644), the Hasu-imo of Japan, is so free 
from the acridity which is common in the vegetative portion of 
these plants that the petioles may be eaten even without cooldng. 
The color of the petiole varies from a pale green in some of the 
Japanese forms to a pronounced purphsh bronze color; the petiolar 
spot may be obscure or purplish, as in the taros. 

Perhaps the best form of dasheen is the Trinidad (S. P. I. No. 
15395). This matures its tubers in about six months from planting, 
provided the soil and climatic conditions are favorable. Though the 
tubers are not large (seldom larger than a hen's egg), the prohficness 
makes up for the small size. Both the tuber and the central root- 
stock may be used on the table ; the inside is very white, though the 
surface is covered with a mat of coarse, reddish brown fibers. The 
erect petioles are purplish bronze-green, especially in the middle, 
while the leaf blade is dark bluish green, with a purple petiolar spot. 
This variety readily adapts itself to either dry or moist soils, pro- 
vided they are not baked or acid. Since this variety endures close 
planting, it is probably possible to obtain upward of 10 tons of 
roots to the acre with common culture in ordinary soil.^ 

SUMMARY. 

There is a vast area of semicultivated and uncultivated land in the 
Gulf and South Atlantic States which is too wet to admit of the cul- 
tivation of general crops, but which is adapted to the root crops 
discussed in this paper. 

The four types of these root crops, namely, yautias, alocasias, 
dasheens, and taros, are practically new to the agriculturists of 
America, although most of the varieties discussed here have been 
under cultivation in other countries for centuries. 

"The Midsu-imo (S. P. I. No. 21647), one of the largest tubered of the Japanese 
dasheens, has yielded in rich, moist soil in an experimental plantation of 35 hills at 
Gough, S. G., 84 pounds of roots to the hill. The hills were at a distance of 3 feet, in 
rows 4 feet apart, and on this basis the yield was at the rate of more than 15 tons to the 
acre. The length of season was seven months from planting to harvest. Closer 
planting, which would be of advantage from a cultural standpoint, would probably 
increase the yield per acre. 

b The Trinidad dasheen yielded in the experiment at Gough, S. C, in a small plot 
of 6 hills, an average of 7 pounds to the hill, or at the rate of more than 12J tons to 
the acre. A somewhat similar variety from Surinam, the "Sinesie," of which 62 
hills were grown, yielded an- average of 7.6 pounds to the hill, or at the rate of 13J 
tons to the acre. Some other varieties of this type, of which only small plots were 
grown, yielded at a much higher rate. 
164 



SUMMAKY. 29 

These crops require only a moderate amount of attention, but 
mider ordinary conditions it is believed that their yield will be com- 
paratively large. FertiHzers are seldom required; insect and fungous 
pests are comparatively few; cuttings of the root instead of seeds are 
employed in propagation. 

Many of the varieties are of use as salad plants, though the prime 
object, especially of the yautia and dasheen varieties, is the produc- 
tion of starch. The tubers of many varieties are suitable for table 
use, and the roots of nearly all forms may be used as stock food 
either fresh or when ground into meal. Several varieties which 
produce small but numerous tubers are particularly adapted for the 
production of alcohol. 

164 



II -AGRICULTURAL HISTORY AND UTILITY OF 
THE CULTIVATED AROIDS. 



By O. F. Cook. 



There can be no question as to the importance of the cultivated 
aroids. Though a large number of varieties, and even distinct species 
and genera, are included under this general term, the series may be 
viewed agriculturally as a single crop of world-wide importance. 
It is unfortunate that the studies reported upon by Mr. Barrett 
could not be carried farther, but even this mcomplete report con- 
tains a very much wider range of information than any other pub- 
lication on the subject. 

The culture of the taro extends from the West Indies across the 
Pacific islands, Japan, China, the Malay region, Hmdustan, Mada- 
gascar, and the whole breadth of tropical Africa. The natives of 
East Africa grow the taro extensively and have many named varie- 
ties.*^ Welwitsch reports Colocasia as growing spontaneously m the 
Portuguese colony of Angola, even in districts where it is not now 
used by the natives. The taro exists also among the natives of the 
interior of Liberia, though the eddoes (Xanthosoma) , introduced 
from the West Indies in the last century, are now preferred. 

The scientific name Colocasia has been connected through the 
Greek with an ancient Egyptian word, "culcas." The taro is culti- 
vated in Egypt, but its antiquity in that country was questioned by 
De Candolle, who also doubted whether "culcas" was really the 
name of the plant that we now call Colocasia. I have recently 
learned from Mr. A. Aaronsohn that the taro is grown in Palestine 
and Syria, especially in the vicinity of Beirut, and that the word 
"culcas" is still in use among the Arabs as the name of the plant. 
Mr. Aaronsohn is also inclined to believe that the culture of the taro 
in Palestine is very old. 

The culture of the taro in China is considered by all authorities as 
very ancient. The Chinese residents of California import con- 

«Damnier, U. Die Gemusepflanzen Ostafrikas. In Engler's Die Pflanzenwelt 
Ost-Afrikas und der 'Nachbargebiete, Berlin, 1895, p. 131. The presence of a variety 
of Xanthosoma among the cultivated East African aroids is indicated, though the 
plants have not been thoroughly studied. 

164 31 



82 PROMISING EOOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

siclerable quantities of taro from Canton and. from Hawaii, and are 
beginning to produce it in California. There is also said to be a 
growing demand for it among the white population.'^ 

Whether the taro also existed in ancient America and thus had a 
really world-wide distribution in prehistoric times is an interesting 
question worthy of a careful investigation from the standpoint of 
ethnology as well as from that of the agricultural study of the varie- 
ties. The fact that these cultivated aroids have been so persistently 
neglected by Europeans lends them an especial interest in the stud}^ 
of primitive agriculture, since we have much greater justification for 
supposing that their distribution represents the work of primitive 
man than in the case of plants in which civilized people have been 
interested. The present tendency to give more careful consideration 
to such plants and to exchange varieties between remote parts of the 
world is likely to disturb the present localization of varieties and 
make it even more difficult to learn their source unless careful studies 
of the varieties accompany the work of introduction. 

There seems to be no record of an introduction of the taro into 
America by Europeans until very recent times, and yet botanists 
have reported it as existing in many localities among the natives. 
The close external similarity of the taro to the yautia renders it very 
probable that mistakes would be made and prevents our placing any 
complete reliance upon the reports, even of acknowledged authori- 
ties, unless we can know the facts on which their identifications were 
based. Thus Seemann, who was an eminent and thoroughly compe- 
tent botanist, reported the existence of Colocasia in Panama with 
the native name oto, while Mr. Barrett reckons the oto as one of the 
varieties of Xanthosoma. Varieties having leaves with a closed 
sinus are reckoned as Colocasia, those with a completely margined 
open sinus as Alocasia, those with the margin interrupted in the 
sinus as Xanthosoma. These leaf characters are certamly very 
convenient in dealing with these varieties that seldom or never 
flower, but it has to be admitted that such differences are often found 
among members of the same genus in other groups of plants. The 
forms reckoned as Xanthosoma appear to be more different among 
themselves than some of them are from varieties placed in Colocasia. 
Thus the Palma yautia is very distinct from the other Porto Rican 
varieties. Its failure to produce tubers, ready production of flowers 
(PI. IX, fig. 2), and greater similarity to a species that grows wild in 
Central Anierica indicate a more recent domestication. 

Varieties of aroids with the taro-hke leaves are widely distributed 
among the natives of the West Indies and adjacent parts of the con- 

« Blasdale, Walter C. A Description of Some Chinees Vegetable Food Materials and 
Their Nutritive and Economic Value. Bulletin 68, Office of Experiment Stations, 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899, p. 13. 
164 



HISTORY AND UTILITY OF THE CtJLTlVATED AEOIDS. 33 

tinent, although not nearly so popular in cultivation as many of the 
varieties of Xanthosoma. In Porto Kico and Cuba the taro retains the 
supposedly indigenous name "malanga," which would hardly be the 
case if it had been introduced by the Spaniards. If the natives of 
the Caribbean region considered it superior to Xanthosoma, it might 
be thought to have spread amongst them since the discovery, but it 
is more difficult to understand the wide distribution without popu- 
larity, unless we suppose that the taro was formerly more popular 
than at present and is being displaced by Xanthosoma. If the taro 
was not already in America before the arrival of Europeans it seems 
more likely to have been introduced from Africa than from the 
Pacific islands. Importers of slaves from Africa found it to their 
advantage to supply the negroes with their accustomed foods. The 
African oil palm and the cola nut, as well as certain varieties of sweet 
potatoes and yams, are supposed to have been established in the 
West Indies during the period of the slave trade. The name ''ma- 
langa" itself is similar to many African words. One of the East 
African names of the taro is ''malombo." 

If it be true, as Mr. Barrett seems to think, that Alocasia as well 
as Colocasia has numerous American varieties, it becomes reasonable 
to suppose that the three principal types of cultivated aroids, 
Xanthosoma, Colocasia, and Alocasia, were originally domesticated 
in America. The American nativity of Xanthosoma has not been 
questioned, but the greater importance of Colocasia and Alocasia 
among the Polynesians has made it appear that they must have 
originated in the Pacific islands or the Malay region. The same 
argument has been applied to the coconut palm, which is certainly a 
native of America, though it has usually been ascribed to the shores 
of the Pacific and Indian oceans because of its much greater impor- 
tance in the East Indies than in the West. 

The domestication of root crops characterized an early epoch in 
the development of primitive agriculture in tropical America. This 
is shown by the large series of root crops that were domesticated in 
America. In addition to the cultivated aroids, there were sweet 
potatoes (Ipomoea), arrowroot (Maranta), cassava (Manihot), yams 
{Dioscorea alata), apio (Arracacia), lleren (Calathaea), potatoes 
{Solanum tuberosum, S. commersoni, and other species), ullucus 
{UUucus tuherosus), achira (Canna edulis), masua (Trojmeolum 
tuberosum), oca (Oxalis crenata), and the Jerusalem artichoke 
(HeliantJius tuberosus). The yam bean or jicama (Pachyrhizus) and 
the chayote (Chayota or Sechium) were also grown as root crops, 
though propagated from seeds. 

In addition to this series of plants that have become known as 
root crops and are usually mentioned as such in botanical works of 
reference, there are records of several other species that are planted 

164 



34 PEOMISING EOOT CROPS FOR THE SOTJTM. 

as root crops in South America. A list of these has been collected 
recently by Prof. H. Pittier, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, includ- 
ing Polymnia edulis, Lepidium meyenii, Portulacca grandijlora, and 
several other plants whose botanical names and agricultural possi- 
bilities are still unknown. 

The root crops that were domesticated in America stand in dis- 
tinct contrast with Old World root crops, both in number and in 
character. The species cultivated in the Old World were relatively 
few, mostly the seed-propagated garden vegetables of temperate 
regions, such as radishes, turnips, beets, parsnips, carrots, etc. The 
temperate root crops domesticated in the Old World were mostly 
capable of being eaten raw, as though they had been used first by 
people unaccustomed to use fire for cooking vegetables. The root 
crops that were domesticated in America are not eaten raw by the 
natives. Many of them are disagreeably acrid in the raw state, like 
the aroids, or even positively poisonous, like the cassava. Very few 
new types of plants appear to have been domesticated as root crops 
in the Old World Tropics, and none of them have attained the 
prominence of several of the American species. The banana appears 
to have been domesticated first as a root crop, and some of the varie- 
ties are still cultivated for their rootstocks in New Caledonia and in 
East Africa. 

The greater antiquity of the domestication of plants in America 
is to be inferred from the fact that many of the cultivated species 
are not known in the wild state, while in the Old World there are very 
few species, if any, that do not have wild representatives that still 
appear closely similar to the domesticated forms. In the case of 
the yautias the American nativity is clearly indicated by the wild 
species of Xanthosoma. One of these grows abundantly in Guate- 
mala and is eaten by the natives in times of scarcity of other food. 
Yautias are also cultivated in Guatemala, but rather sparingly, 
Indian corn being the chief staple in all parts of the country. The 
varieties of Xanthosoma cultivated in Guatemala appear quite dis- 
tinct from the common wild species. The wild plant is larger and 
has a lighter green foliage, and the rootstocks that provide for the 
vegetative propagation of the plant are very slender, only about the 
diameter of an ordinary lead pencil, instead of the large, fleshy, 
tuberous rootstocks produced by the cultivated sorts. This wild 
species has a considerable similarity to the variety cultivated in Porto 
Rico under the name ''yautia palma," but has a shorter and thicker 
spadix with a less ample spathe. 

The abundance of the wild xanthosomas in the mountainous parts 
of Guatemala, including the volcanic districts, makes it easier to 
understand how a poisonous plant might come to be used and finally 

164 



HISTOEY AND UTILITY OF THE CULTIVATED AEOIDS. 35 

protected, propag&ted, and cultivated by primitive man. The agri- 
cultural development would come about very naturally and grad- 
ually after the making of the simple discovery that these acrid plants 
could be eaten after they had been kept for a time in boiling water. 
This discovery was possible in many places in tropical America in 
the very early stages of human progress, before cooking utensils were 
used and even before fire had been definitely adopted by primitive 
man. Springs of hot water are numerous and are shown by special 
abundance of ancient remains to have been centers of population in 
primitive times. Former association with hot springs is also sug- 
gested by the habit of many of the Indians, such as the Kekchis of 
eastern Guatemala, to drink only hot water. 

An alternative possibility has to be admitted, that the taro plant, 
like the banana, might have been brought to America from the 
Pacific islands in prehistoric times and might have fallen into com- 
parative disuse as the result of the discovery in America of the 
xanthosoma, which seems to be a better plant for general agricultural 
purposes. There is good historical evidence that the banana, which 
certainly originated in the Old World, had been brought to America 
before the Spanish conquerors arrived. No such direct testimony is 
likely to be secured regarding the taro, which attracted relatively 
little attention from the early historians of Spanish America. We 
have to rely upon the general considerations that it is not likely to 
have been brought by the Spaniards, and still less likely to have been 
adopted by the Indians, who are very slow to take up the cultivation 
of any new plant unless it appears to have a very distinct advantage. 
The Polynesian method of cultivating the taro in pools or swamps is 
not known to be applied to the plant anywhere in America. Mr. 
David Fairchild, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, states that the 
Polynesian system of planting the taro in the muddy soils of swamps 
or artificially flooded places is in use in the island of Madeira, intro- 
duced, doubtless, by the natives of the island who have lived in 
Hawaii (see PL X). The nearest approach to this system is seen 
when the plants are scattered along the banks of small streams. 
Many yautias are raised in Porto Rico on very steep, rocky slopes of 
mountains, where the soil is very shallow and irrigation is quite out 
of the question. (See PL IX, fig. 1.) 

Wliether or not we agree with Mr. Barrett regarding the prospective 
commercial importance of the aroids or their profitable cultivation 
in the United States, the study of them is eminently justified by two 
practical considerations, (1) that they are extensively used as food 
by millions of natives of tropical countries and (2) that they are 
worthy of much more careful consideration by all Europeans who 
undertake to settle or reside in tropical countries, 

164 



36 PEOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

The Tropics afford a great variety of fruits, though there are few 
locaHties where the traveler's expectations of profusion are reaHzed. 
But if fruits are usually to be reckoned as scarce, there is often a 
downright famine of vegetables. Not only on the Isthmus of Pan- 
ama, but in many other parts of the Tropics where railroad building 
and other improvements are being attempted by men from Europe 
and the United States, the deficiency of fresh vegetables is recog- 
nized as a practical difficulty which seriously interferes with comfort, 
health, and efficiency. 

The Department of Agriculture receives many letters from Amer- 
ican residents of tropical countries asking for information and seeds 
of varieties of temperate vegetables that will grow in the Tropics. 
In some regions moderate success with a few of the temperate types 
of vegetables is possible if special care is used and after sufficient 
experience has been accumulated. Varieties better suited to tropical 
conditions are being discovered or introduced from other tropical 
countries. The success of the Chinese gardeners with some of their 
seeds from Canton shows that their varieties and methods of culture 
are worthy of our careful considefation. 

In many cases the most practical advice that can be given to per- 
sons newly established in tropical localities is to study and make use 
of the indigenous tropical vegetables, of which these yautias, taros, 
etc., form excellent representatives. These plants will thrive and 
produce abundantly under extreme tropical conditions where most 
of our temperate vegetables will refuse to grow and the others can be 
expected to produce only the most indifferent results. The acrid 
substances and milky secretions render the aroids immune to many 
of the diseases and insect pests that interfere with the cultivation of 
other kinds of plants that lack such protection. 

Propagation by rootstocks is an especial advantage under tropical 
conditions, since it avoids the difficulties of germinating, transplant- 
ing the seedlings, and caring for the plants in their tender early stages. 
With sufficient water the cultivated aroids may be expected to hold 
their own with any other crop, and they will also thrive in places too 
wet for most of our cultivated plants. 

The agricultural advantages make it all the more desirable that 
residents in the Tropics should become thoroughly acquainted with 
the cultivated aroids. Many people think they have tried the trop- 
ical vegetables who have not really done so. It is necessary to learn 
how to use a new plant, as well as to learn how to grow it, and one 
must persist until he has had a fair opportunity of testing his own 
taste. The tendency to condemn any unfamiliar dish is very gen- 
eral, whereas the same flavor that seemed so objectionable at first 
may appear quite attractive after we have become accustomed to it. 

104 



HISTORY AND UTILITY OP THE CULTIVATED AEOIDS. 37 

This is true of the aroids used as garden vegetables. By people 
who have become familiar with yautias or eddoes they are often 
recommended as better than potatoes. But if one expects too close 
a similarity he is disappointed. Instead of the soft, mealy, white, 
bland-tasting "mashed potato," one finds a much firmer material of 
a somewhat yellowish or grayish color and a distinct, slightly nutty 
flavor. Nobody would be hkely to mistake eddo for potato, and if 
potatoes were expected eddoes might be a distinct disappointment. 
But if we give the eddo a fair trial on its own merits, it may hold its 
own with the potato in our gastronomic affections. We may be sur- 
prised to find ourselves as willing to have eddoes served as potatoes 
or to find that we miss the eddoes at home as much as we did the pota- 
toes in Africa. 

164 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Agricultural history and utility of the cultivated aroids, paper 31-37 

Alcohol, production from aroids, need of investigations 17 

use of small tubers 29 

Alocasia indica, Singapore yautia, description 18 

javanica, description 18 

macrorhiza, description 24-25 

marshalli, characters 17-18 

Panama, description 24-25 

varieties, description, distribution, etc 24-25 

violaceum, description 23 

See also Aroids, Dasheens, Taros, Tubers, and Yautias. 

Amarilla group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 19-20 

Aroids, characters, distinguishing, of yautias and taros 32 

cultivated, agricultural history and utility, paper 31-37 

distribution, varieties, etc 32-33 

economic, description, habits of growth, etc 8-11 

fungous pests, resistance 8 

propagation, methods 36 

seed, production 8 

use of rootstocks and tubers 11 

use of wet lands 7 

yields 8 

See also Alocasia, Dasheens, Taros, Tubers, and Yautias. 

Banana, cultivation as root crop 34 

Barrett, O. W., paper entitled "Yautias, taros, and dasheens " 7-29 

Belembe yautia, description 24 

Blanca yautia, from Porto Rico, description 18 

Buds of tubers, variations, importance 9 

Carolinas, wet lands, cause of abandonment 7 

" Castration " of tubers , 12-13 

Coco, name for taro 10 

Coconut palm, nativity 33 

Coffee, pulp, use as fertilizer 12 

Colocasia antiquorum, description 8, 9-11 

esculentum, description, etc 25 

niger, description 23 

derivation of name 31 

monorhiza scripta, description 22 

Colocasiese, family, description of genera 8-11 

Colomo, name for taro 11 

Cook, 0. F., paper entitled "Agricultural history and utility of the cultivated 

aroids " 31-37 

Crops, wet-land, need in South 7 

Culcas, Arab name for taro 31 

164 • 39 



40 PKOMISING ROOT CEOPS FOE THE SOUTH. 

Page. 

Culture, yautias, taros, and dasheens 11-12 

Dasheen, Hasu-imo, description 28 

Hatake-imo, description 27-28 

Midsu-imo, experiments at Gough, S. ( ' 28 

Trinidad, description, yield, etc 28 

experiments at Gough, S. ( ' 28 

Dasheens, culture 11-12 

description 7-jl 

diseases 13-14 

fertilizers 12 

harvesting 12-13 

starch grains, size 1,5 

storage 13 

varieties, description, distribution, etc 27-28 

yautias, and taros, paper 7-29 

yield 13 

See also Alocasia, Aroids, Flowers, Taros, Tubers, and Yautias. 

Diseases, yautias, taros, and dasheens 13-14 

Dominica yautia, description, etc., important variety from Porto Rico 19 

Eddo, name for taro 10 

taro of West Indies, description 25-26 

See also Taros. 

"Eyes" of yautia, taro, and dasheen tubers, variations, importance 9-10 

Fertilizers, yautias, taros, and dasheens 12 

Flour, taro, manufacture, value, etc 15 

yautia, manufacture, value, etc 15 

Flowers, yautias, taros, and dasheens, habits of growth, desrriptioii, pollination, 

etc - 10 

Garendakandala taro, from Ceylon, description - 27 

Gengibrilla yautia, from Porto Rico, description 19 

Georgia, wet lands, cause of abandonment 7 

Guayamera yautia, from Java, description - - 23 

Harvesting yautias, taros, and dasheens 12-13 

Hasu-imo dasheen, from Japan, description 28 

Hatake-imo dasheen, from Japan, description 27-28 

Introduction to paper on yautias, taros, and dasheens 7 

Islena yautia, from Porto Rico, description, value, etc 19, 21 

"Jamaica tanier," description 21 

Java, taro varieties, description 26, 27 

Kalukandala taro, from Ceylon, description 27 

Kempol koenig taro, from Java, description 27 

Kiempol poetich taro, from Java, description 27 

Lampaza, name for taro - - 1 1 

Leaf, blade, taro and dasheen, description 9 

yautia, description - 8-9 

stem, aroids, description - 8 

Leaves, yautias, taros, and dasheens, use as pot herbs 16 

Lehua taro, description 26 

Leucocasia gigantea, description 28 

Macal, name for taro _ ^^ 

Malanga, name for taro and yautia ll 

taro of Porto Rico and Cuba, description 25-26 

Malombo, name for taro ^^ 

164 



INDEX. 41 

V&gt\ 

Manola group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 18-19 

Manure, stable, use as fertilizer 12 

Martinica group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 20 

Meal, taro, manufacture, value, etc !•') 

Midsu-imo dasheen, experiments at Gough, S. C 28 

Names, variant, for yautias and taros 10-11 

Nitrates, chemical, use as fertilizer injurious 12 

Orqueta yautia, from Porto Rico, description, value, etc 20 

Oto group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 21 

name for yautia 11 

Palm, coconut, nativity 33 

Palma yautia, description 23-24 

Panama alocasia, from Porto Rico, description 24-25 

Phosphates, chemical, use as fertilizer injurious 12 

Pigs, feeding, experiment with yautias 16 

Planting yautias, taros, and dasheens, cultural directions, etc 11-12 

Plants, aroids, habits of growth, distinguishing characters, etc - 8-11 

number to square yard 11 

Pollination of flowers of aroids 10 

Porto Rico, varieties of yautias 18, 19 

Potash, requirements of yautias, taros, and dasheens 12 

Potatoes, composition, comparison with yautias 14 

flavor, comparison with yautias 37 

Propagation, aroids, methods 36 

Punzera yautia, from Porto Rico, description 22 

Quequeste, name for taro '. - 11 

Recipes, preparation of tubers and rootstocks for food 15-16 

Rejalgar, name for taro 11 

Rhizome, use as seed 11-12 

Rhizomes, aroids, description 8 

Rolliza group, yautias, description, distribution, value, etc 17-18 

Root crops, American, comparison with European 34 

domestication in America 33-34 

importance for Tropics 31-37 

Roots of tubers of yautias, taros, and dasheens, habits of growth 10 

Rootstocks, taros, preparation for food 15-16 

yautias, tai'os, and dasheens, use as seed 11 

Royal taro, description 26 

Samanal yautia, description, etc., important variety from Porto Rico 19 

Sap of yautias and taros, character, 9 

Seed, production by aroids 8 

use of rootstocks and tubers of aroids 11 

Seeman, report of Colocasia in Panama 32 

Senteh group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 22-23 

Snail, pollination of flowers 10 

Soil, requirements of yautias, taros, and dasheens 11 

South, need of wet-land crops 7 

Spadix, variation in species of yautias, taros, and dasheens 10 

Spathe, yautias, taros, and dasheens, odor, variations, etc 10 

Starch content, yautia 14-15 

grains, variation in yautias, taros, and dasheens 15 

manufacture from taros, difficulties 14-15 

Storage, yautias, taros, and dasheens 13 

164 



42 PROMISING ROOT CROPS FOR THE SOUTH. 

Page. 

Summary of paper on yautias, taros, and dasheens 28-29 

Talus belang taro, from Java, description 26 

koekoek taro, from Java, description 2G 

soerat yautia, description 22 

Tanier, Jamaica, description 21 

variant spellings 10 

See also Yautias. 

Tannin, appearance in taros 26 

Taro, kalukandala, description 27 

kempol koenig, description 27 

kiemi^ol poetich, description '. 27 

Leh.ua, description 26 

malanga, description 25-26 

names in other countries 10-11 

Royal, description 26 

talus belang, description ■. 26 

koekoek, description 26 

Taros, cultivation, extent 31-32 

culture ■ 11-12 

description 7-11 

diseases 1 3-14 

fertilizers 12 

flour and meal, manufacture, value, etc 15 

harvesting 12-13 

importations from Canton, China 32 

red, description, etc 27 

rootstocks, preparation for food 15-16 

sap, character 9 

starch content 14-15, 25 

storage 13 

striped, description 26-27 

uses 15-17 

varieties, description, distribution, etc 25-27 

yautias, and dasheens, paper 7-29 

yield 13 

See also Alocasia, Aroids, Dasheens, Flowers, Tubers, and Yautias. 

Tekixcamote, name for taro 11 

Trinidad dasheen, description, yield, etc 28 

experiments at Gough, S . C 28 

Tubers, use as seed 11 

yautias, composition, comparison with potatoes 14 

preparation for food 15-16 

taros, and dasheens, color 9 

composition 14 

habits of growth 9 

importance of variations in "eyes " 9-10 

Varieties, alocasia, description, distribution, etc 24-25 

dasheens, description, distribution, etc 27-28 

taros, description, distribution, etc 25-27 

yautias, description, distribution, etc 17-24 

Vegetables, scarcity in tropical countries 36 

Vino group, yautias, description, distribution, etc . .- 21-22 

Violacea group, yautias, description, distribution, etc 23 

164 



INDEX. 



43 



Page. 

"Weeping " of yautia leaves, cause 9 

Xanthosoma hastifolium, description 24 

maculatum, description, value, etc 20 

saggittifolium, description 8, 9-11 

violacea, description ""^ 

wild varieties, occurrence 34-3o 

Yautia, Belembe, description 24 

Blanca, description 1° 

derivation of word ^^ 

Dominica, description 19 

Gengibrilla, description 19 

Guayamera, description 23 

Islena, description - 19, 21 

Orqueta, description - 20 

Palma, description - 23-24 

Punzera, description - 22 

Rolliza, yield ^ 

Samanal, description 19 

spinach, demand in Canal Zone 16 

talus soerat, description 22 

Yautias, Amarilla group, description, distribution, etc 19-20 

cooked, flavor, comparison with potatoes 37 

cultivation on steep slopes 35 

culture 11-12 

description, commercial importance, etc 7-11 

diseases 13-14 

feed for pigs, experiment 1^ 

fertilizers 1*" 

flour and meal, manufacture, value, etc 15 

harvesting 12-13 

leaves, ' ' weeping, ' ' cause 9 

Manola group, description, distribution, etc 18-19 

Martinica group, description, distribution, etc - 20 

Oto group, description, distribution, etc 21 

Rolliza group, description, distribution, value, etc 17-18 

sap, character 9 

Senteh group, description, distribution, etc 22-23 

starch content - - 14-15 

storage - - - 13 

taros, and dasheens, paper 7-29 

tubers, composition, comparison with potatoes 14 

uses 15-17 

varieties, descriptions 17-24 

Vino group, description, distribution, etc - 21-22 

Violacea group, description, distribution, etc 23 

yield 13 

See also Alocasia, Aroids, Dasheens, Flowers, Taros, and Tubers. 

Yield, yautias, taros, and dasheens 13 

164 

o 



[Continued from page 2 of cover.] 

85 -Princiroles of Mushroom Growing and Mushroom Spawn Making. 1905. Price, 10 cents 
i" AtSSre without Irrigation in the Sahara Desert. 1905. Pnce, 5 cents, 
s?' Disease Resistance of Potatoes. 1905. Price, 5 cents. 

88 wIIviL-Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant. 1906. Price 10 cents. 

89 Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States. 1906. Pnce, 5 cents. 
90! Miscellaneous Papers. 1906. Price, 5 cents. 

91 Varieties of Tobacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1906. Pnce, 5 cents. 

92 Date Varieties and Date Culture m Tunis. 1906, Price, 25 cents. 

qV The Control of Apple Bitter-Rot. 1906. Price, 10 cents. „ „. ,„ 

94 Farai Practice wMi Forage Crops in Western Oregon, etc. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 

95* A New Type of Red Clover. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 

96* Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

9?' Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 11. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

98 Sov Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 15 cents, „ -^ ■ r < 

99 Quick Method for Determmation of Moisture in Gram. 1907. Pnce, Scents. 
100.' Miscellaneous Papers. 1907". Price, 25 cents. 

101 Contents of and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

103 Dry Farming in the Great Basin. 1907. Price, 10 cents. - - 

104 The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price, 5 cents. 

105" Relation of Composition of Leaf to Burnmg of Tobacco. 1907. Pnce, 10 cents. 

106 Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

108 The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

109 American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907, Pnce, 25 cents. 

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents. 

111. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Pricfe, 15 cents. ^ . ,„ . 

112. Use of Suprarenal Glands in Testing Drug Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

113 Comparative Tolerance of Plants for Salts in Alkah Soils. 1907. Price, 5 cents. 

lu! Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

115 Disinfection of Sewage for Protection of Water Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

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117 The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

118. Peruvian Alfalfa. 1907. Price, 10 cents. ^ 

119 The Mulberry and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Pnce, 10 cents. 

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122. Curly-Top: A Disease of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

123 The Decay of Oranges while in Transit from Cahfornia. 1908. Price, 20 cents. 

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126. Nomenclature of the Pear. 1908. Price, 30 cents. 

127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

128. Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

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135. Orchard Fruits in Virginia and the South Atlantic State^. 1908. Price, 20 cents. 

136. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1909. ■ Price, 10 cents. 

138. Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco in Connecticut Valley. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

139. American Medicinal Barks. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

140. "Spineless" Prickly Pears. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

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142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

143. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

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145. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

146. The Superiority of Line Breeding oVer Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

147. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. 1909. Price, 5 cents. 

148. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 16. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

150. Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia, etc. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

151. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

152. The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

153. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 17. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

154. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

155. The Control of Black-Rot of the Grape. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

156. A study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

157. The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

158. The Hoot-Rot of Tobacco Caused by Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Price, 15 cents." 

159. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

160. Itahan Lemons and Their By-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

161. A New Type of Indian Corn from China.' 1909. -Price, 10 cents. 

162. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 18. [In press.] 

163. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. [In press.] 

164 



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